Visit our website for more information on fees, scholarships, postgraduate loans and other funding options to study Communications Engineering at Swansea University - 'Welsh University of the Year 2017' (Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide 2017).
As a student on the MSc in Communications Engineering, you will be provided with an in-depth understanding of the technology and architecture of computer communications, photonics and telecommunication networks, wireless telecommunications and related wireless information technologies.
The practical knowledge and skills you will gain as a student on the MSc Communications Engineering course include being presented with the essential element of modern optical communication systems based on single mode optical fibres from the core to the access, evaluating bandwidth-rich contemporary approaches.
The MSc Communications Engineering course also covers advanced networking topics including network performance and network security. This is supported with some practical knowledge and skills for project and business management principles.
As a student on the MSc Communications Engineering course, you will also be introduced to technologies underlying the compressions and transmission of digital video over networking platforms, gain knowledge on the channel models and associated impairments that typically limit the performance of wireless systems, and learn to design optimum digital communication receivers for some basic communications channel models.
The MSc in Communications Engineering is modular in structure. Communications Engineering students must obtain a total of 180 credits to qualify for the degree. This is made up of 120 credits in the taught element (Part One) and a project (Part Two) that is worth 60 credits and culminates in a written dissertation. Students on the Communications Engineering course must successfully complete Part One before being allowed to progress to Part Two.
Part-time MSc in Communications Engineering Delivery mode:
The part-time scheme is a version of the full-time equivalent MSc in Communications Engineering scheme, and as such it means lectures are spread right across each week and you may have lectures across every day. Due to this timetabling format, the College advises that the scheme is likely to suit individuals who are looking to combine this with other commitments (typically family/caring) and who are looking for a less than full-time study option.
Those candidates seeking to combine the part-time option with full-time work are unlikely to find the timetable suitable, unless their job is extremely flexible and local to the Bay Campus.
Timetables for the Communications Engineering programme are typically available one week prior to each semester.
Modules on the MSc Communications Engineering course can vary each year but you could expect to study:
RF and Microwave
Signals and Systems
Entrepreneurship for Engineers
Nanophotonics
Micro and Nano Electro-Mechnical Systems
Lasers and applications
Wireless Communications
Digital Communications
Optical Communications
Optical Networks
Communication Skills for Research Engineers
Research Dissertation
MSc Dissertation - Communications Engineering
Our new home at the innovative Bay Campus provides some of the best university facilities in the UK, in an outstanding location.
Engineering at Swansea University has extensive IT facilities and provides extensive software licenses and packages to support teaching which benefit students on the MSc in Communications Engineering course. In addition the University provides open access IT resources.
At Swansea University, Electronic and Electrical Engineering has an active interface with industry and many of our activities are sponsored by companies such as Agilent, Auto Glass, BT and Siemens.
This discipline has a good track record of working with industry both at research level and in linking industry-related work to our postgraduate courses. We also have an industrial advisory board that ensures our taught courses maintain relevance.
Our research groups work with many major UK, Japanese, European and American multinational companies and numerous small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) to pioneer research. This activity filters down and influences the project work that is undertaken by all our postgraduate students.
The MSc Communications Engineering is suitable for those who have a career interest in the field of communication systems, which has been fundamentally changing the whole world in virtually every aspect, and would like to gain lasting career skills and in-depth knowledge to carry out development projects and advanced research in the area of communication systems.
Communications Engineering graduates can seek employment in wireless communication systems and network administration, and mobile applications development.
“I was fascinated by the natural beauty of Swansea before I came here. Swansea University is near the beach so you can walk around the beach at any time. This Master’s is very useful to enhance your ability and enrich your principle of the academic knowledge.”
Zhang Daping, MSc Communication Systems (now Communications Engineering)
The Research Excellence Framework (REF) 2014 ranks Engineering at Swansea as 10th in the UK for the combined score in research quality across the Engineering disciplines.
The REF assesses the quality of research in the UK Higher Education sector, assuring us of the standards we strive for.
World-Leading Research
The REF shows that 94% of research produced by our academic staff is of World-Leading (4*) or Internationally Excellent (3*) quality. This has increased from 73% in the 2008 RAE.
Research pioneered at the College of Engineering harnesses the expertise of academic staff within the department. This ground-breaking multidisciplinary research informs our world-class teaching with several of our staff leaders in their fields.
With recent academic appointments strengthening electronics research at the College, the Electronic Systems Design Centre (ESDC) has been re-launched to support these activities.
The Centre aims to represent all major electronics research within the College and to promote the Electrical and Electronics Engineering degree.
Best known for its research in ground-breaking Power IC technology, the key technology for more energy efficient electronics, the Centre is also a world leader in semiconductor device modelling, FEM and compact modelling.
This degree mirrors the two-year Masters programme structure that is common in the USA, and is an ideal stepping stone to a PhD or a career in industry.
The optional professional placement component gives you the opportunity to gain experience from working in industry, which cannot normally be offered by the standard technically-focused one-year Masters programme.
The Electronic Engineering Euromasters programme is designed for electronic engineering graduates and professionals with an interest in gaining further qualifications in advanced, cutting-edge techniques and technologies. Current pathways offered include:
Please note that at applicant stage, it is necessary to apply for the Electronic Engineering (Euromasters). If you wish to specialise in one of the other pathways mentioned above, you can adjust your Euromaster programme accordingly on starting the course.
This programme is studied full-time over 24 months. It consists of eight taught modules, two modules based on experimental reflective learning and an extended project.
Please view the website for an example module listing.
The MSc Euromasters complies with the structure defined by the Bologna Agreement, and thus it is in harmony with the Masters programme formats adhered to in European universities. Consequently, it facilitates student exchanges with our partner universities in the Erasmus Exchange programme.
A number of bilateral partnerships exist with partner institutions at which students can undertake their project. Current partnerships held by the Department include the following:
The taught postgraduate degree programmes of the Department are intended both to assist with professional career development within the relevant industry and, for a small number of students, to serve as a precursor to academic research.
Our philosophy is to integrate the acquisition of core engineering and scientific knowledge with the development of key practical skills (where relevant). To fulfil these objectives, the programme aims to:
A graduate from this MSc programme should:
Enhanced capabilities of MSc (Euromasters) graduates:
We often give our students the opportunity to acquire international experience during their degrees by taking advantage of our exchange agreements with overseas universities.
In addition to the hugely enjoyable and satisfying experience, time spent abroad adds a distinctive element to your CV.
Mobile communications provide terrestrial coverage in densely populated areas, while satellite communications enable wireless communication in regions where mobile networking is not cost-effective. The programme gives you an in-depth understanding of the engineering aspects of these important current and future technologies.
Read about the experience of a previous student on this course, Gideon Ewa.
This programme is studied full-time over one academic year and part-time students must study at least two taught technical modules per academic year, until a total of eight is reached. It consists of eight taught modules and a project.
Example module listing
The following modules are indicative, reflecting the information available at the time of publication. Please note that not all modules described are compulsory and may be subject to teaching availability and/or student demand.
The programme aims to:
Intended capabilities for MSc graduates:
This Programme in Mobile and Satellite Communications reflects the importance of mobile telephony, mobile data communications and satellite-based communications as complementary technologies.
Students will gain a detailed knowledge of the fundamentals and advanced concepts involved in communications and 3G/4G/5G mobile technology, and satellite-based communications and networking.
This material is complemented by study in areas such as mobile applications and web services, mobile app software development, RF design, the Internet of Things, and network management.
The teaching material and projects are closely related to the research being carried out in the EE Department's Institute for Communications Systems.
We often give our students the opportunity to acquire international experience during their degrees by taking advantage of our exchange agreements with overseas universities.
In addition to the hugely enjoyable and satisfying experience, time spent abroad adds a distinctive element to your CV.
Our Masters programme in Satellite Communications Engineering is designed to give you the specialist multidisciplinary skills required for careers in the satellite and space industries.
We have an exceptional concentration of academic staff experienced in the satellite area, in addition to well-established contacts with all the major satellite manufacturers, operators and service providers.
Industry participates in the MSc programme in both lecturing and projects, and facilitates excellent engagement for our students. Graduation from this programme will therefore make you very attractive to the relevant space-related industries that employ over 6,500 people in the UK alone.
Read about the experience of a previous student on this course, Thanat Varathon.
This programme is studied full-time over one academic year and part-time students must study at least two taught technical modules per academic year. It consists of eight taught modules and a project.
Example module listing
The following modules are indicative, reflecting the information available at the time of publication. Please note that not all modules described are compulsory and may be subject to teaching availability and/or student demand.
Through consistent investment, we have built up an impressive infrastructure to support our students and researchers. The University of Surrey hosts Surrey Space Centre – a unique facility comprising academics and engineers from our own spin-out company, Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd.
Our mission control centre was designed and developed by students to support international CubeSat operations as part of the GENSO network, and it also supports the development of the University’s own educational satellites.
Our teaching laboratories provide ‘hands-on’ experience of satellite design and construction through the use of EyasSAT nano-satellite kits. They also house meteorological satellite receiving stations for the live reception of satellite weather images.
Elsewhere, our fully equipped RF lab has network analyser, signal and satellite link simulators. The Rohde and Schwartz Satellite Networking Laboratory includes DVBS2-RCS generation and measurement equipment, and roof-mounted antennas to communicating live with satellites.
A security test-bed also exists for satellite security evaluation. We have a full range of software support for assignments and project work, including Matlab, and you will be able to access system simulators already built in-house.
Satellite Communications Engineering students can also make use of SatNEX, a European Network of Excellence in satellite communications supported by ESA; a satellite platform exists to link the 22 partners around Europe. This is used for virtual meetings and to participate in lectures and seminars delivered by partners.
Our own spin-out company, Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd, is situated close by on the Surrey Research Park and provides ready access to satellite production and industrial facilities. In addition, we have a strategic relationship with EADS Airbus Europe-wide and several other major communications companies.
This programme in satellite communications engineering. provides detailed in-depth knowledge of theory and techniques applicable to radio frequency (RF) and microwave engineering.
The programme includes core modules in both RF and microwave covering all ranges of wireless frequencies and a number of application devices including radio frequency identification (RFID), broadcasting, satellite links, microwave ovens, printed and integrated microwave circuits.
Additional optional modules enable the student to apply the use of RF and microwave in subsystem design for either mobile communications, satellite communications, nanotechnology or for integration with optical communications.
The teaching material and projects are closely related to the research being carried out in the Department’s Advanced Technology Institute and the Institute for Communication Systems.
We often give our students the opportunity to acquire international experience during their degrees by taking advantage of our exchange agreements with overseas universities.
In addition to the hugely enjoyable and satisfying experience, time spent abroad adds a distinctive element to your CV.
This programme is studied full-time over one academic year and part-time students must study at least two taught technical modules per academic year. It consists of eight taught modules and a standard project.
Example module listing
The following modules are indicative, reflecting the information available at the time of publication. Please note that not all modules described are compulsory and may be subject to teaching availability and/or student demand.
To support your learning, we hold regular MSc group meetings where any aspect of the programme, technical or non-technical, can be discussed in an informal atmosphere. This allows you to raise any problems that you would like to have addressed and encourages peer-based learning and general group discussion.
We provide computing support with any specialised software required during the programme, for example, Matlab. The Faculty’s student common room is also covered by the University’s open-access wireless network, which makes it a very popular location for individual and group work using laptops and mobile devices.
Specialist experimental and research facilities, for computationally demanding projects or those requiring specialist equipment, are provided by CVSSP.
The taught postgraduate Degree Programmes of the Department are intended both to assist with professional career development within the relevant industry and, for a small number of students, to serve as a precursor to academic research.
Our philosophy is to integrate the acquisition of core engineering and scientific knowledge with the development of key practical skills (where relevant).
To fulfil these objectives, the programme aims to:
Intended capabilities for MSc graduates:
This programme in Mobile Media Communications aims to provide a high-quality advanced training in aspects of multimedia signal processing for audio and video content production, processing and transmission.
The programme examines ways that relevant digital data can be captured or generated, and the digital streams processed, compressed, analysed and communicated over broadcast channels, mobile networks or internet.
Along with a basis of image, video and audio processing, it provides a grounding in communications related elements that include, for example, coding, networking and data transmission. Students will be able to tailor their learning experience through selection of elective modules to suit their career aspiration.
Key to the programme is cross-linking between signals, and delivery of audio and video content. The Programme has strong links to current research in the Department of Electronic Engineering’s Centre for Vision, Speech and Signal Processing.
We often give our students the opportunity to acquire international experience during their degrees by taking advantage of our exchange agreements with overseas universities.
In addition to the hugely enjoyable and satisfying experience, time spent abroad adds a distinctive element to your CV.
Our MSc Euromasters programme is designed for electronic engineering students and professionals with an interest in gaining further qualifications in advanced, cutting-edge techniques and technologies in the selected pathway, with enhanced project, as well as training in transferable skills including business awareness and management.
We offer numerous Electronic Engineering MScs in more specialised fields of study, from space engineering to mobile communications systems, and if you wish to specialise in one of these pathways you can adjust your course accordingly.
The advanced taught technical content is in sub-disciplines of electronic engineering closely aligned with the internationally-leading research conducted in the four research centres of the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
This programme is studied full time over 12 months or can be part-time over 48 months. It consists of eight taught modules and a standard project.
Please view the website for a module list
The taught postgraduate Degree Programmes of the Department are intended both to assist with professional career development within the relevant industry and, for a small number of students, to serve as a precursor to academic research.
Our philosophy is to integrate the acquisition of core engineering and scientific knowledge with the development of key practical skills (where relevant). To fulfil these objectives, the programme aims to:
A graduate from this MSc Programme should:
Students on the Programme may study (in the first two semesters) any four modules from the pool available to MSc students in semester 1 and any four modules from the pool available to MSc students in semester 2.
This enables the student to freely choose the combination of modules that will best suit their desired personal development and career aspirations.
With the aid of advice from a tutor they will also choose a combination of modules, which will typically be closely related to a specific discipline area being one of space systems, communication systems, wireless technologies, signal processing, integrated circuits or nanotechnology.
Additionally the project dissertation which the student will complete will be one which relates suitably to the area of the taught modules chosen by the student and as such it will be supervised by an academic from an appropriate research centre within the department.
We often give our students the opportunity to acquire international experience during their degrees by taking advantage of our exchange agreements with overseas universities.
In addition to the hugely enjoyable and satisfying experience, time spent abroad adds a distinctive element to your CV.
Postgraduate degree programme Communications Engineering Masters/MSc:
This programme will equip you for a rewarding career in a dynamic and challenging field. Companies in both mature and rapidly growing economies are keen to secure staff with the masters-level specialist knowledge of the underlying principles and advanced applications of communication systems that this programme provides; your career prospects will be excellent.
Future developments in communication systems are vital to the continued growth of the global economy; reducing costs, improving quality and providing ever more sophisticated services, whilst increasing both spectral efficiency and energy efficiency. Companies in both mature and rapidly growing economies are keen to secure staff with the masters-level specialist knowledge of the underlying principles and advanced applications of communication systems that this programme provides.
The programme covers a wide range of topics in communication engineering and provides options from outside the core Specialism. As well as acquiring specialist technical knowledge, you will develop generic skills such as: interpreting equirements and specifications to produce effective design solutions; making decisions on the basis of incomplete information; giving technical presentations, and working in a team. These are achieved through a combination of group and individual exercises.
Related links
Patterns of study
The majority of students study our taught Masters programmes full time. Our programmes are also suitable for practising engineers who wish to study part-time or take a single module to earn Continuing Professional Development (CPD) points. Many modules are completed in three-day sessions allowing you to focus one topic at a time. Following each session of lectures there is an opportunity for you to deepen your understanding through private study and in most cases there is also an assessed assignment.
Overview module
There is a shared introduction to topics from communications engineering, requirements analysis and object-oriented design, and an introduction to and recap of C programming. For the communications engineering programmes there is an introduction to key issues in the design of antennas, radio frequency circuits and link budgets. For the computing programmes there is an introduction to object-oriented programming.
Core modules
These modules cover the advanced specialist topics required for your specific degree programme, such as statistical signal processing and coding and advanced digital design. These technologies are at the heart of many current developments in modern electronic systems.
Cross-programme option modules
These options specialize in topics relevant to each degree programme and give you the opportunity to adapt the programme that you have chosen to study. The prior knowledge needed for each module is specified in the student handbook to help you make the most appropriate choice. This allows you the greatest possible freedom to customise your study package appropriately.
Individual project
This is an opportunity for you to develop specialist knowledge. Some projects are undertaken in collaboration with companies and, in some cases, you may work on company premises investigating issues of direct concern to future product development. Typical projects include the development of hardware for automotive radar signal processing and the detection of leaks in landfill sites, wireless access systems, 3G mobile radio for light aircraft, the creation of 3D worlds for surgery simulation and wearable computing.
Assessment and awards
Assessment is by a combination of written examination and course work. There is a strong emphasis on course work to deepen understanding. The pass mark is 50%. A merit is awarded to students with an average of 60% or more and a distinction is awarded to students with an average of 70% or more, in both taught and project modules. There are prizes for students who perform especially well overall and for those who complete exceptionally good individual projects.
This course will equip you for a rewarding career in this dynamic field. Companies in both mature and rapidly growing economics are keen to secure professionals with specialist knowledge of the underlying principles and advanced applications of communications systems, meaning that upon graduation your career prospects will be excellent.
University Careers Network
Preparation for your career should be one of the first things you think about as you start university. Whether you have a clear idea of where your future aspirations lie or want to consider the broad range of opportunities available once you have a Birmingham degree, our Careers Network can help you achieve your goal.
Our unique careers guidance service is tailored to your academic subject area, offering a specialised team (in each of the five academic colleges) who can give you expert advice. Our team source exclusive work experience opportunities to help you stand out amongst the competition, with mentoring, global internships and placements available to you. Once you have a career in your sights, one-to-one support with CVs and job applications will help give you the edge.
If you make the most of the wide range of services you will be able to develop your career from the moment you arrive.
Our MSc in Communications, Networks and Software covers the key aspects of the changing Internet environment, in particular the convergence of computing and communications underpinned by software-based solutions.
Some of our students undertaking their project are able to work on one of our wide range of testbeds, such as internet technologies, wireless networking, network management and control, and internet-of-things (IoT) applications.
We also have specialist software tools for assignments and project work, including OPNET, NS2/3, and various system simulators.
Read about the experience of a previous student on this course, Efthymios Bliatis.
This programme is studied full-time over 12 months or part-time from 24 to 60 months. It consists of eight taught modules and a project.
Example module listing
The following modules are indicative, reflecting the information available at the time of publication. Please note that not all modules described are compulsory and may be subject to teaching availability and/or student demand.
The taught postgraduate degree programmes of the Department are intended both to assist with professional career development within the relevant industry and, for a small number of students, to serve as a precursor to academic research.
Our philosophy is to integrate the acquisition of core engineering and scientific knowledge with the development of key practical skills (where relevant).
To fulfil these objectives, the programme aims to:
A graduate from this MSc Programme should:
We have a full range of software support for assignments and project work, including:
We often give our students the opportunity to acquire international experience during their degrees by taking advantage of our exchange agreements with overseas universities.
In addition to the hugely enjoyable and satisfying experience, time spent abroad adds a distinctive element to your CV.
This MSc programme targets the needs of a rapidly evolving communications engineering sector and provides an industrially relevant and exciting qualification in the latest advanced communications technologies being employed and developed.
Study the techniques and technologies that enable advanced communications provision through fixed and wireless/mobile networks, and that modernise the core networks to provide ultra-high bit-rates and multi-service support.The Advanced Communications Engineering (RF Technology and Telecommunications) MSc at Kent is well-supported by companies and research establishments in the UK and overseas.
The programme reflects the latest issues and developments in the telecommunications industry delivering high quality systems level education and training. Gain deep knowledge of next generation wireless communication systems including antenna technology, components and systems, and fibre optic and converged access networks.
Visit the website https://www.kent.ac.uk/courses/postgraduate/1708/advanced-communications-engineering-rf-technology-telecommunications
The School of Engineering and Digital Arts (http://www.eda.kent.ac.uk/) successfully combines modern engineering and technology with the exciting field of digital media. The School was established over 40 years ago and has developed a top-quality teaching and research base, receiving excellent ratings in both research and teaching assessments.
The School undertakes high-quality research that has had significant national and international impact, and our expertise allows us to respond rapidly to new developments. Our 30 academic staff and over 130 postgraduate students and research staff provide an ideal focus to effectively support a high level of research activity. We have a thriving student population studying for postgraduate degrees in a friendly and supportive teaching and research environment.
We have research funding from the Research Councils UK, European research programmes, industrial and commercial companies and government agencies including the Ministry of Defence. Our Electronic Systems Design Centre and Digital Media Hub provide training and consultancy for a wide range of companies. Many of our research projects are collaborative, and we have well-developed links with institutions worldwide.
This MSc covers the key technologies required for the physical layer of broadband communications systems. The programme unites concepts across both radio and optical communication to give students a better understanding of the technical challenges they will face in engineering the rapid development of the broadband communications infrastructure. There is exceptionally strong industry demand for engineers with this skill base.
This MSc provides training in the key technologies required for the physical layer of photonic, wireless and wired communications systems and other applications of this technology, ranging from THz imaging to radar systems. The programme encompasses the complete system design from device fabrication and properties through to architectural and functional aspects of the subsystems that are required to design and build complete communication systems.
Students undertake modules to the value of 180 credits.
The programme consists of five core modules (75 credits), three optional modules (45 credits) and a research dissertation (60 credits).
Core modules
Optional modules
Students choose three of the following:
Dissertation/report
All students undertake an independent research project which culminates in a dissertation of approximately 12,000 words.
Teaching and learning
The programme is delivered through a combination of formal lectures, laboratory and workshop sessions, seminars, tutorials and project work. All of the programme lecturers carry out leading research in the subjects they are teaching. Student performance is assessed through unseen written examination, coursework, design exercises and the dissertation.
Rapid growth of the internet and multimedia communications has led to an unprecedented demand for broadband communication systems. There is exceptionally strong industry demand for engineers with this skills base and a clear shortage of supply. Recent graduates have moved into roles as electrical and technical engineers at companies including Société Générale and Ericsson.
Recent career destinations for this degree
Employability
The programme provides a broad package of knowledge in the areas of wireless and optical communications networks, from devices to signal processing theory and techniques, network architecture, and planning and optimisation. Students are expertly equipped to pursue careers as engineers, consultants and system architects in wireless and optical communications. A considerable number of graduates also stay in the education sector undertaking research and teaching.
UCL Electronic & Electrical Engineering is one of the most highly rated electronic engineering research departments in the UK. It is the oldest in England, founded in 1885 with Professor Sir Ambrose Fleming (the inventor of the thermionic valve and the left-hand and right-hand rules) as the first head of department.
Our research and teaching ethos is based on understanding the fundamentals and working at the forefront of technology development. We cover a wide range of areas from materials and devices to photonics, radar, optical and wireless systems, electronics and medical electronics, and communications networks.
Accreditation: Accredited by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) on behalf of the Engineering Council as meeting the requirements for Further Learning for registration as a Chartered Engineer. Candidates must hold a CEng accredited BEng/BSc (Hons) undergraduate first degree to comply with full CEng registration requirements.
Ideal for you if you are a professional with a background in computer engineering, communication systems or electronic/electrical engineering, and provides you with the skills and knowledge needed to move into computer networking. It is particularly useful for people working in companies that rely on constant innovation in electronics, computer engineering and communications.
Computer networks currently provide the infrastructure for most, businesses, educational institutions, retailers, manufacturers and public services. Many companies rely increasingly on computer and network engineering, which is now a global discipline.
This course is hardware and software based, and examines the design, specification, and integration of current and next generation computer and communications network technologies.
This course provides an opportunity for you to
You may wish to expand your current knowledge and expertise if you already have computer networking skills or possibly move into a new area of engineering and have the necessary entry requirements for this course.
This programme is CEng accredited by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and fulfils the educational requirements for registration as a Chartered Engineer when presented with an CEng accredited Bachelors programme.
Full time – September start – typically 12 or 18 months
Full time – January start – typically 12 or 18 months
Part time – September start – typically 36 months
Part time – January start – typically 36 months
The course is based around two main themes, communication and networks, and computer engineering. You study eight modules plus a major project.
Communications and network modules
At least three from
Computer engineering modules
At least three from
Option modules
Up to two from
Project (equivalent to four modules)
You undertake a major project under the supervision of a tutor.
By final examination, coursework and project reports
Information technology, communications, computer networks and electronics are among some of the fastest growing areas of the economy. By completing this course, you gain a thorough understanding of computer networking systems with the knowledge and expertise to enable you to apply your skills within many areas of industry, or take up a position in higher education or research.
