Masters Degrees in Archaeological Science, United Kingdom

The MSc Archaeological Science will provide you with a solid grounding in the theory and application of scientific principles and techniques within archaeology. The programme also develops critical, analytical and transferable skills that prepare you for professional, academic and research careers in the exciting and rapidly advancing area of archaeological science or in non-cognate fields.

The programme places the study of the human past at the centre of archaeological science enquiry. This is achieved through a combination of science and self-selected thematic or period-based modules allowing you to situate your scientific training within the archaeological context(s) of your choice. The programme provides a detailed understanding of the foundations of analytical techniques, delivers practical experience in their application and data processing, and the ability to design and communicate research that employs scientific analyses to address archaeological questions. Upon graduation you will have experience of collecting, analysing and reporting on data to publication standard and ideally equipped to launch your career as a practising archaeological scientist.

Distinctive features

The MSc Archaeological Science at Cardiff University gives you access to:

• A flexible and responsive programme that combines training in scientific enquiry, expertise and vocational skills with thematic and period-focused archaeology.

• Materials, equipment, library resources and funding to undertake meaningful research in partnership with a wide range of key heritage organisations across an international stage.

• A programme with core strengths in key fields of archaeological science, tailored to launch your career in the discipline or to progress to doctoral research.

• A department where the science, theory and practice of archaeology and conservation converge to create a unique environment for exploring the human past.

• Staff with extensive professional experience in researching, promoting, publishing, and integrating archaeological science across academic and commercial archaeology and the wider heritage sector.

• An energetic team responsible for insights into iconic sites (e.g. Stonehenge, Çatalhöyük), tackling key issues in human history (e.g. hunting, farming, food, and feasts) through the development and application of innovative science (e.g. isotopes, residue analysis, DNA, proteomics)

• A unique training in science communication at every level - from preparing conference presentations and journal articles, to project reports, press releases and public engagement, our training ensures you can transmit the excitement of scientific enquiry to diverse audiences.

• Support for your future career ambitions. From further study to science advisors to specialists – our graduates work across the entire spectrum of archaeological science as well as moving into other successful careers.

Structure

There are two stages to this course: stage 1 and stage 2.

Stage 1 is made up of:

• 40 credits of Core Skills and Discipline-Specific Research Training modules for Archaeology and Conservation Master's students
• A minimum of 40 credits of Archaeological Science modules
• An additional 40 credits of Archaeological Science or Archaeology modules offered to MA and MSc students across the Archaeology and Conservation department

Stage 2 comprises:

• 60 credit Archaeological Science Dissertation (16-20,000 words, topic or theme chosen in consultation with academic staff)

Core modules:

Postgraduate Skills in Archaeology and Conservation
Skills and Methods for Postgraduate Study
Archaeological Science Dissertation

Teaching

Teaching is delivered via lectures, laboratory sessions, interactive workshops and tutorials, in addition to visits to relevant local resources such as the National Museum Wales and local heritage organisations.

Lectures take a range of forms but generally provide a broad structure for each subject, an introduction to key concepts and relevant up-to-date information. The Archaeological Science Master's provides students with bespoke training in scientific techniques during laboratory sessions. This includes developing practical skills in the identification, recording and analysis of archaeological materials during hands on laboratory sessions. These range from macroscopic e.g. bone identification, to microscopic e.g. material identification or status with light based or scanning electron microscopy, to sample selection, preparation and analysis e.g. isotopic or aDNA and include health and safety and laboratory management skills. Students will be able to develop specialist practical skills in at least one area of study. In workshops and seminars, you will have the opportunity to discuss themes or topics, to receive and consolidate feedback on your individual learning and to develop skills in oral presentation.

This programme is based within the School of History, Archaeology and Religion and taught by academic staff from across Cardiff University and by external speakers. All taught modules within the Programme are compulsory and you are expected to attend all lectures, laboratory sessions and other timetabled sessions. Students will receive supervision to help them complete the dissertation, but are also expected to engage in considerable independent study.

Assessment

The 120 credits of taught Modules within Stage 1 of the Programme are assessed through in-course assessments, including:

Extended essays
Oral presentations
Poster presentations
Statistical assignments
Critical appraisals
Practical skills tests
Data reports
Research designs

You must successfully complete the taught component of the programme before progressing to Stage 2 where assessment is:

Dissertation (16-20,000 words)

Career prospects

After successfully completing this MSc, you should have a broad spectrum of knowledge and a variety of skills, making you highly attractive both to potential employers and research establishments. You will be able to pursue a wide range of professional careers, within commercial and academic archaeology and the wider heritage sector. Career paths will generally be specialist and will depend on the choice of modules. Graduates will be well placed to pursue careers as a specialist in isotope analysis, zooarchaeological analysis or human osteoarchaeology. They will also be in a position to apply for general laboratory based work and archaeological fieldwork. Working within science communication and management are other options. Potential employers include archaeological units, museums, universities, heritage institutions, Historic England and Cadw. Freelance or self-employment career routes are also common for animal and human bone analysts with postgraduate qualifications.

The archaeology department has strong links and collaborations across the heritage sector and beyond. British organisations that staff currently work with include Cadw, Historic England, English Heritage, Historic Scotland, National Museum Wales, the British Museum, the Welsh archaeological trusts and a range of other archaeology units (e.g. Wessex Archaeology, Oxford Archaeology, Cambridge Archaeology Unit, Archaeology Wales). In addition, staff are involved with archaeological research across the world. You will be encouraged to become involved in these collaborations via research projects and placements to maximise networking opportunities and increasing your employability.

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The MSc in Archaeological Science is designed to provide a broad theoretical and practical understanding of current issues and the techniques archaeologists use to investigate the human past. Its purpose is to provide a pathway for archaeologists or graduates of other scientific disciplines to either professional posts or doctoral research in archaeological science. It focuses particularly on the organic remains of humans, animals and plants which is a rapidly developing and exciting field of archaeometry. Major global themes such as animal and plant domestication and human migration and diet will be explored integrating evidence from a range of sub-disciplines in environmental and biomolecular archaeology Students taking this course will study and work in a range of environmental, DNA, isotope and dating laboratories alongside expert academic staff.

The aim of this programme is to equip students to:
-Devise and carry out in-depth study in archaeological science
-Analyse and interpret results
-Communicate scientific results to a variety of audiences
-Develop the inter-disciplinary skills (cultural and scientific) to work effectively in archaeology

Students will gain a critical understanding of the application of scientific techniques to our study of the human past, and receive intensive training in a specific area of archaeological science. Students will examine the theory underpinning a range of scientific techniques, as well as the current archaeological context in which they are applied and interpreted. This will be achieved through a broad archaeological framework which will educate students to reconcile the underlying constraints of analytical science with the concept-based approach of cultural archaeology. Students will therefore examine both theoretical and practical approaches to particular problems, and to the choice of suitable techniques to address them. They will learn how to assess the uncertainties of their conclusions, and to acknowledge the probable need for future reinterpretations as the methods develop. Following training in one specific archaeological science area of their choice, students will be expected to demonstrate that they can combine a broad contextual and theoretical knowledge of archaeology with their detailed understanding of the methods in their chosen area, through an original research dissertation.

Course Structure

The course consists of four taught modules of 30 credits each and a 60 credit research dissertation. Students will study two core modules in Term 1 and two elective modules in Term1/2 followed by a research dissertation.
Core Modules:
-Research and Study Skills in Archaeological Science
-Topics in Archaeological Science
-Research Dissertation

Optional Modules:
In previous years, optional modules available included:
-Themes in Palaeopathology
-Plants and People
-Animals and People
-Chronometry
-Isotope and Molecular Archaeology
-Practical Guided Study

Learning and Teaching

The programme is delivered through a mixture of lectures, seminars, tutorials and workshops and practical classes. Typically lectures provide key information on a particular area, and identify the main areas for discussion and debate among archaeologists in a specific area or on a particular theme. Seminars and tutorials then provide opportunities for smaller groups of student-led discussion and debate of particular issues or areas, based on the knowledge that they have gained through their lectures and through independent study outside the programme’s formal contact hours.

Practical classes and workshops allow students to gain direct experience of practical and interpretative skills in Archaeological Science with guidance from experienced and qualified scientists in Archaeology. Finally, independent supervised study enables students to develop and undertake a research project to an advanced level. Throughout the programme emphasis is placed on working independently outside the contact hours, in order to synthesise large datasets and to develop critical and analytical skills to an advanced level.

The balance of activities changes over the course of the programme, as students develop their knowledge and the ability as independent learners and researchers. In Terms 1 and 2 the emphasis is upon students acquiring the generic, practical skills and knowledge that archaeological scientists need to undertake scientific study in archaeology whilst examining and debating relevant archaeological theory and the 'big questions' to which scientific methods are applied. They also study a choice of specific areas creating their individual research profile and interests.

Students typically attend three hours a week of lectures, and two one hour seminars or tutorials each week. In addition, they may be required to attend three-four hours a week of workshops or practicals based on lectures. The practical work complements desk-based analytical skills which are intended to develop skills applicable within and outside the field of archaeology. Outside timetabled contact hours, students are also expected to undertake their own independent study to prepare effectively for their classes, focus their subject knowledge and develop a research agenda.

The balance shifts into Term 3, as students develop their abilities as independent researchers with a dissertation. The lectures and practicals already attended have introduced them to and given them the chance to practice archaeology research methods within specific fields of study. Students have also engaged with academic issues, archaeological datasets and their interpretation which are at the forefront of archaeological research. The dissertation is regarded as the cap-stone of the taught programme and an indicator of advanced research potential, which could be developed further in a professional or academic field. Under the supervision of a member of academic staff with whom they will typically have ten one-hour supervisory meetings, students undertake a detailed study of a particular theme or area resulting in a significant piece of independent research. They also interact with scientific lab staff as they carry out their research.

Throughout the programme, all students also have access to an academic adviser who will provide them with academic support and guidance. Typically a student will meet with their adviser two to three times a year, in addition to which all members of teaching staff have weekly office hours when they are available to meet with students on a ‘drop-in’ basis. The department also has an exciting programme of weekly one hour research seminars which postgraduate students are strongly encouraged to attend..

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The MSc by Research Archaeological Science programme is an exciting opportunity to develop advanced knowledge and understanding of specific areas of archaeological science by following a personalised, individual study pathway, in close collaboration with our staff. You will further your own intellectual development and enhance your independent research skills by completing a substantial archaeological research project.

It is ideal preparation for students wishing to undertake a PhD in archaeology, and follows the research model (1 year research training MA plus three years research) suggested by the Arts and Humanities Research Council. It also provides a wide range of highly sought-after skills in research, critical thinking, data analysis, and communication which will provide the foundation for a future career in archaeology and heritage, as well as many other sectors.

This course offers you the flexibility to tailor the content to reflect your personal interests and research topic. Our teaching draws on the extensive and world-leading research expertise of staff within the Department of Archaeology. We have internationally-renowned expertise in Bioarchaeology (palaeoanthropology, archaeobotany and zooarchaeology) and Archaeological Materials (ceramics, glass and metals), with staff members who work across regions and chronological periods ranging from Old-World Prehistory, to the ancient Mediterranean and the Roman world, and Medieval and Post-Medieval Europe. Students can follow a specialist pathway focusing on specific areas of environmental or materials science, gaining advanced training in practical and analytical techniques, and can combine this with an in-depth study of a specific period or region. You will undertake independent research on a topic of your choice, supervised by a member of staff, which will include a major component of primary scientific analysis of archaeological evidence.

For those in current employment, the MSc by Research can be studied over two years on a part-time basis. As teaching is largely undertaken through individual tutorials or small groups, there is a great deal of flexibility to organise your time around existing commitments.
Visit the Department of Archaeology website to explore the Department's research and teaching profile.

Key facts

The department offers excellent facilities for teaching and research, including a suite of new, fully-equipped laboratories for both bioarchaeology and archaeological materials.
The department has established a Next Generation fund, to which our postgraduate students can apply for awards to help them undertake exciting new research projects or work placements at the end of their degree. Every year we run a Next Generation Archaeology conference which our staff and students organise together.
This course is taught within a thriving department that attracts academic and research staff from around the world, and which has a friendly and vibrant atmosphere.

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The Core Archaeology course introduces current debates in archaeological theory and the history of archaeological thought, as well as archaeological methods (ranging from the study of prehistoric exchange to bio-archaeological techniques to artefact studies, quantitative analyses and dating methods). Area option courses examine the archaeology of a particular region of the world (such as South Asia or Europe) in detail. Students are encouraged to choose a third module from the range of MPhil options on offer in the Division of Archaeology to complement their specific interests (e.g., heritage, science, material culture, etc). All module choices must have the approval of the module's instructor and the MPhil in Archaeology Coordinator.

Students may choose to specialise in any of the following options:

- Archaeological Heritage and Museums
- Archaeological Science
- Archaeology of the Americas
- Egyptian Archaeology
- European Prehistory
- Medieval Archaeology
- Mesopotamian Archaeology
- Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Archaeology
- South Asian Archaeology

Visit the website: http://www.graduate.study.cam.ac.uk/courses/directory/hsarmpmar

Course detail

Students electing the Archaeological Heritage option will take three taught modules:
1. The Socio-politics of the Past
2. Museums: History, Theory, and Practice
3. Management of the Archaeological Heritage. This course concentrates on issues of differentiation of interpretation.

The topics are all of academic importance and the teaching focuses on a theoretical understanding of the issues involved, with practical examples used as case studies. The aim is to educate you within this expanding field and to activate further research.

Students choosing the Archaeological Science option will take:
1. Archaeological Science
2. Practical Application of Scientific Methods modules
3. One other module offered by the Division of Archaeology (chosen in consultation with the supervisor and MPhil Coordinator).

This course covers a broad range of scientific archaeological approaches with geo- and bioarchaeological foci, from theoretical, methodological and practical points of view. A series of recurrent case studies is used to introduce the questions, techniques and ideas applicable in each archaeological situation. In addition, this MPhil equips students with analytical skills in archaeological science.

Format

All MPhil students in the Division of Archaeology take a Research Skills Module and write a dissertation (15,000 words maximum). Students choosing Archaeology of the Americas, Archaeology of Egypt, European Archaeology, Medieval Archaeology, Mesopotamian Archaeology, Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Archaeology, or South Asian Archaeology take:

1. the Core Archaeology course
2. the appropriate area option course
3. any other module offered by the Division of Archaeology (in consultation with the supervisor and MPhil coordinator).

The assessed components of the three selected modules each represent 15% of the final mark. The assessed components of Research Skills module represents 5%, while the dissertation counts for 50% of the final mark.

Assessment

- The dissertation is an extended piece of independent, original research. Students work with their supervisor to formulate a dissertation project, carry out research and write it up. The topic of the dissertation has to be approved by the Faculty Degree Committee. The dissertation is of maximum 15,000 words (excluding bibliography and appendices) and is due at the end of August; it counts as 50% of the student’s final mark.

- Students taking the MPhil in Archaeology are usually required to produce between 3 and 6 assessed essays depending on their chosen course of study and the modules they select. The essays are between 3000 and 4000 words and are submitted in Michaelmas, Lent and Easter Terms.

- Students taking the MPhil in Archaeology are required to sit written examinations for some modules.

- Attendance at the relevant Research Skills Workshops is required of all MPhil students in the Division of Archaeology. MPhil students submit a 2000 word research proposal and give a presentation to teaching staff and peers which form the assessed part of the Research Skills module and are worth 5% of the overall MPhil degree.

Continuing

MPhil students wishing to continue to the PhD in Archaeology are required to achieve a High Pass mark of 68 overall and no less than 68 in their dissertation, and to obtain the support of an appropriate supervisor. In some circumstances additional academic conditions may be set to ensure appropriate skills, such as language competence, are in place prior to admittance on the PhD programme.

How to apply: http://www.graduate.study.cam.ac.uk/applying

Funding Opportunities

There are many different sources of funding available to support UK/EU and international students at the Division of Archaeology but full scholarships for MPhil students are highly competitive. The Division of Archaeology enters exceptionally strong MPhil candidates for Gates Cambridge, CHESS and AHRC scholarships and scholarship schemes administered by the Cambridge Trust. The Division of Archaeology also administers several funds which aim to support Archaeological fieldwork, Egyptology and Assyriology at MPhil level and will endeavour to support students in obtaining funding from University and external sources. For further information about funding opportunities at the Division of Archaeology consult the Division website: http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/prospective-students/graduate-funding or contact the Graduate Administrator: [email protected].

General Funding Opportunities http://www.graduate.study.cam.ac.uk/finance/funding

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This course is designed to give graduates a systematic training in the application of modern scientific methods in archaeology. It provides the necessary practical, analytical and interpretative skills to apply a wide range of specialist approaches in archaeology. It aims to prepare students not only for research in archaeological science, but also to further career prospects in all areas of mainstream archaeology. Students normally follow one of three pathways.
-Environmental Archaeology focuses on subsistence and health through studies of animal bones, plant remains and biomarkers in human and non-human hard tissue. It also introduces environmental issues which impact on human beings, including environmental change.
-Landscape Archaeology focuses on understanding and interpreting landscapes in the past using scientific methods.
-Biomolecular Archaeology allows students to specialise in the use of biomolecular methods to study both human remains and artefacts.

The pathways are intended to guide students through appropriate modules; they are indicative rather than prescriptive and students may choose to take the optional modules offered in any combination, subject to timetabling.

For more information on the part time version of this course, please view this web-page: http://www.brad.ac.uk/study/courses/info/archaeological-sciences-msc-part-time

Why Bradford?

-Individual modules are available to candidates wishing to enhance their specialist knowledge in a particular area
-This course includes hands-on experience in the Division's laboratories, a substantial individual research dissertation and has a wide range of option choices
-First destination figures indicate that about 85% of postgraduates in Archaeological Sciences achieve work or further studies in the discipline or cognate areas

Modules

(C) = Core, (O) = Option

Semester 1 (60 Credits - 3 x (C) Modules and 30 Credits from the (O) Modules listed):
-Quantitative Methods (10 Credits) (C)
-Analytical Methods 1* (10 Credits) (C)
-The Nature of Matter 1 (10 Credits) (C)
-Analysis of Human Remains (20 Credits) (O)
-GIS: Theory and Practice (10 Credits) (O)
-Archaeozoology (10 Credits) (O)
-Introduction to Forensic Archaeology (20 Credits) (O)

Semester 2 (60 Credits - 4 x (C) Modules and 20 Credits from the (O) Modules listed):
-Analytical Methods 2* (10 Credits) (C)
-Research Skills (10 Credits) (C)
-Techniques and Interpretation in Instrumental Analysis (10 Credits) (C)
-Topics in Archaeometry (10 Credits) (C)
-Forensic Taphonomy (20 Credits) (O)
-Funerary Archaeology (10 Credits) (O)
-Past Environments (20 Credits) (O)
-Site Evaluation Strategies (20 Credits) (O)
-Soils and Chemical Prospection (10 Credits) (O)

End of Semester 2 onwards (60 Credits - 1 x (C) Module):
-Dissertation (MSc) (60 Credits) (C)

* Students must take at least 20 credits from Analytical Methods 1 and 2. These comprise a wide choice of 10 credit modules run as short courses are shared with the MSc Analytical Sciences. These modules are run as short courses.

Semester 1:
-X-Ray Diffraction
-Separation Science
-Vibrational Spectroscopy

Semester 2:
-Mass Spectrometry
-Stable Light Isotope Analysis
-Electron Microscopy

Career support and prospects

The University is committed to helping students develop and enhance employability and this is an integral part of many programmes. Specialist support is available throughout the course from Career and Employability Services including help to find part-time work while studying, placements, vacation work and graduate vacancies. Students are encouraged to access this support at an early stage and to use the extensive resources on the Careers website.

Discussing options with specialist advisers helps to clarify plans through exploring options and refining skills of job-hunting. In most of our programmes there is direct input by Career Development Advisers into the curriculum or through specially arranged workshops.

The course prepares students not only for research in archaeological science, but also furthers career prospects in mainstream archaeology or scientific analysis. The course is well-suited both to students who wish to use it as a foundation from which to commence research or as vocational training to enhance employment prospects in archaeology.

Career destinations have included PhDs at Universities of York, Bradford, Oxford, Texas A&M, Catamarca; UNESCO research; archaeological project managers; conservation science and teaching.

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This course is designed to give graduates a systematic training in the application of modern scientific methods in archaeology. It provides the necessary practical, analytical and interpretative skills to apply a wide range of specialist approaches in archaeology.

It aims to prepare students not only for research in archaeological science, but also to further career prospects in all areas of mainstream archaeology.

Students normally follow one of three pathways.
-Environmental Archaeology focuses on subsistence and health through studies of animal bones, plant remains and biomarkers in human and non-human hard tissue. It also introduces environmental issues which impact on human beings, including environmental change.
-Landscape Archaeology focuses on understanding and interpreting landscapes in the past using scientific methods.
-Biomolecular Archaeology allows students to specialise in the use of biomolecular methods to study both human remains and artefacts.

The pathways are intended to guide students through appropriate modules; they are indicative rather than prescriptive and students may choose to take the optional modules offered in any combination, subject to timetabling.

To find out more about the part time version of this course, please view this web-page: http://www.brad.ac.uk/study/courses/info/archaeological-sciences-pgdip-part-time

Why Bradford?

-Individual modules are available to candidates wishing to enhance their specialist knowledge in a particular area
-This course includes hands-on experience in the Division's laboratories, a substantial individual research dissertation and has a wide range of option choices
-First destination figures indicate that about 85% of postgraduates in Archaeological Sciences achieve work or further studies in the discipline or cognate areas

Modules

(C) = Core, (O) = Option

Semester 1 (60 Credits - 3 x (C) Modules and 30 Credits from the (O) Modules listed):
-Quantitative Methods (10 Credits) (C)
-Analytical Methods 1* (10 Credits) (C)
-The Nature of Matter 1 (10 Credits) (C)
-Analysis of Human Remains (20 Credits) (O)
-GIS: Theory and Practice (10 Credits) (O)
-Archaeozoology (10 Credits) (O)
-Introduction to Forensic Archaeology (20 Credits) (O)

Semester 2 (60 Credits - 4 x (C) Modules and 20 Credits from the (O) Modules listed):
-Analytical Methods 2* (10 Credits) (C)
-Research Skills (10 Credits) (C)
-Techniques and Interpretation in Instrumental Analysis (10 Credits) (C)
-Topics in Archaeometry (10 Credits) (C)
-Forensic Taphonomy (20 Credits) (O)
-Funerary Archaeology (10 Credits) (O)
-Past Environments (20 Credits) (O)
-Site Evaluation Strategies (20 Credits) (O)
-Soils and Chemical Prospection (10 Credits) (O)

* Students must take at least 20 credits from Analytical Methods 1 and 2. These comprise a wide choice of 10 credit modules run as short courses are shared with the MSc Analytical Sciences. These modules are run as short courses.

Semester 1:
-X-Ray Diffraction
-Separation Science
-Vibrational Spectroscopy

Semester 2:
-Mass Spectrometry
-Stable Light Isotope Analysis
-Electron Microscopy

Career support and prospects

The University is committed to helping students develop and enhance employability and this is an integral part of many programmes. Specialist support is available throughout the course from Career and Employability Services including help to find part-time work while studying, placements, vacation work and graduate vacancies. Students are encouraged to access this support at an early stage and to use the extensive resources on the Careers website.

Discussing options with specialist advisers helps to clarify plans through exploring options and refining skills of job-hunting. In most of our programmes there is direct input by Career Development Advisers into the curriculum or through specially arranged workshops.

The course prepares students not only for research in archaeological science, but also furthers career prospects in mainstream archaeology or scientific analysis. The course is well-suited both to students who wish to use it as a foundation from which to commence research or as vocational training to enhance employment prospects in archaeology.

Career destinations have included PhDs at Universities of York, Bradford, Oxford, Texas A&M, Catamarca; UNESCO research; archaeological project managers; conservation science and teaching.

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Study at the frontiers of archaeological science

Why choose this course?

Like a handful of comparable courses, the York MSc in Bioarchaeology provides training in the advanced osteoarchaeological analysis of skeletal remains. Uniquely, however, it is the only course in the UK to combine this discipline with the molecular analysis of human remains. Nowhere else can you immerse yourself in the study of stable isotopes, lipid residue analysis, palaeoproteomics and ancient DNA – and play an active role in the development of new techniques in this constantly evolving branch of archaeology. In 2014, seven of the top 100 discoveries in science were in archaeology, and BioArCh staff were involved in three of these.
-Advanced training in human osteoarchaeology, delivered by the UK’s leading practitioners
-Study ancient biomolecules in world-class facilities at the BioArch centre and Department of Biology
-Unique opportunity to combine bioarchaeology with complementary subjects and tailor a course to suit your interests
-Access an incredible range of in-house analytical equipment
-Take part in cutting-edge science and build essential practical skills
-Work alongside leading researchers and academics in a diverse range of specialisms
-Work on diverse material that is often ‘fresh out of the ground’ and make valuable contributions to live projects Receive career and research guidance from staff with significant experience in the sector and a track record of successfully placing PhD students

What does the course cover?

Through a combination of academic studies, practical training and dissertation research, this course provides a thorough grounding in all aspects of bioarchaeology theory, investigation and practice.

Uniquely, you can combine bioarchaeology with a range of subjects and tailor your degree to your own interests. You could adopt a ‘period’ focus, for example, to specialise in the bioarchaeology of the Medieval, Viking, Mesolithic or early prehistoric periods. You could combine human bioarchaeology with zooarchaeology and orientate your course towards more advanced studies of bone function and anatomy. Or you could focus on skills such as GIS modelling and field archaeology.

Who is it for?

This course is designed for students with a passionate interest in the future of archaeology, who want to work at the frontiers of archaeological science. The degree is primarily aimed at those whose previous experience is in archaeology, anthropology, biology or related fields, but we do accept students from diverse backgrounds. The common factor among our student intake is a keen interest in science and in human remains at a biomolecular or bone level.

What can it lead to?

Molecular analysis is used increasingly widely in archaeology, but the range of osteological and molecular skills offered by the course provide valuable training and expertise for a wide range of careers and further study.

Many students go on to take PhDs at York and other institutions around the world. Others pursue a wide range of professional careers, from osteoarchaeology and environmental archaeology to the medical humanities and laboratory technician work.

Careers

By the end of the MSc Bioarchaeology course you will be able to:
-Identify and record human bone assemblages
-Age, sex and assess pathologies from human bones
-Understand advanced methods for analysing bone tissues, including biomolecular methods
-Apply chemical and biomolecular methods to skeletal material
-Understand the processes of decay and diagenesis of bone tissue
-Critically evaluate published research and datasets
-Orally present knowledge and concepts
-Work effectively within a laboratory environment
-Plan, design and undertake a piece of independent research

These skills and techniques are deployed widely in the field of archaeological research and exploration, but they are also valuable for a wide range of careers and further studies.

Many our MSc Bioarchaeology postgraduates go on to further research in bioarchaeological and environmental fields. The BioArch department has a successful track record of placing students on PhD courses in York and institutions worldwide.

Here’s a selection of the career and research destinations of some of our recent students: US graduate school programmes
-Archaeological field units
-Environmental archaeology
-Professional archaeologists – field and laboratory based
-Laboratory technicians
-Demonstrators
-University/research technicians
-Academia
-On-site osteoarchaeologists
-Medical humanities

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This MA offers a tailor-made programme of study designed as a preparation for an MPhil or PhD research project. Students develop a detailed understanding of archaeological data and its interpretation to serve as a basis for independent research, and the ability to develop original research questions and explore them effectively.

[Degree information]]
This MA offers a wide-ranging and challenging introduction to theoretical issues involved in modern archaeology as a comparative, anthropologically-informed, and socially-situated discipline. Students develop critically aware perspectives on archaeological practice and research processes, and gain an in-depth understanding of approaches to the collection, analysis and interpretation of archaeological data.

Students undertake modules to the value of 180 credits.

There are two core modules (40 credits), a research proposal (60 credits) and research writing (90 credits).

Core modules - students are required to take the following and a Graduate School Skills Development module (optional)
-Themes, Thought and Theory in World Archaeology: Foundations
-Themes, Thought and Theory in World Archaeology: Current Issues

Optional modules
-Research Proposal
-Research Writing

Dissertation/report
Students prepare a fully documented research proposal of 12,000 words, and complete a piece of research writing of approximately 15,000 words.

Teaching and learning
The core programme is taught within a seminar framework based on set readings. A tailor-made programme of other work is designed in consultation with the student's research supervisor. Student performance is assessed on the basis of the core module assessments, a research proposal and a piece of research writing (dissertation).

Careers

Most graduates of the programme go on to MPhil or PhD studies. Others pursue a wide range of professional careers both within and beyond archaeology.

Top career destinations for this degree:
-Arcaeology, University College London (UCL)
-PhD Archaeology, University College London (UCL)

Employability
This programme is designed specifically to develop research skills to enable students to design and carry through an independent archaeological research project. In addition to general research skills, more specific experience and skills identified as essential for the proposed research will be developed through optional modules and training. In addition, students acquire a detailed understanding of recent theoretical debates and the critical skills to evaluate existing arguments and interpretations and to develop their own.

Why study this degree at UCL?

The UCL Institute of Archaeology is the largest and one of the most highly regarded centres for archaeology, archaeological science, cultural heritage and museum studies in Britain, as evidenced by its top position in university league tables and National Student Survey results. It is one of the very few departments of archaeology in the world actively pursuing research on a truly global scale. Its degree programmes offer an unrivalled variety of modules on a diverse range of topics. The institute hosts events on many different aspects of archaeology and is linked to heritage organisations, museums and archaeological societies, providing an outstanding research environment for staff, students and visitors. It is truly international in outlook and membership, with students and staff from over 40 countries, and involvement in field research projects around the world.

Its outstanding archaeological library is complemented by University College London's main library, University of London Senate House and other specialist libraries.

UCL is located in central London, within walking distance to the British Museum and the British Library. UCL's own museums and collections form a resource of international importance for academic research.

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The Archaeology MA is an intensive induction programme on current archaeological theory and interpretive trends which equips students to undertake research in their chosen field. The flexible programme of study serves as an excellent expansion of undergraduate studies or as a self-designed foundation for further postgraduate and professional work.

Degree information

The programme provides a wide-ranging introduction to archaeology as a comparative, anthropologically-informed, and socially-situated discipline. Students develop critically aware perspectives on archaeological practice and research processes and gain an in-depth understanding of approaches to the collection, analysis and interpretation of archaeological data. The programme is extremely flexible, with a wide choice of options available allowing students to tailor the programme to their own interests.

Students undertake modules to the value of 180 credits.

The programme consists of two core modules (30 credits), optional modules (60 credits) and a research dissertation (90 credits).

Core modules - all students are required to take the following:
-Themes, Thought and Theory in World Archaeology: Foundations
-Themes, Thought and Theory in World Archaeology: Current Issues

Optional modules - students choose to follow further optional modules up to the value of 60 credits from an outstanding range of Master's programme options available at the UCL Institute of archaeology. Some of the most popular choices include:
-Aegean Prehistory: major themes and current debates
-Ancient Italy in the Mediterranean
-Archaeologies of Modern Conflict
-Archaeology of Buddhism
-Archaeology and Education
-Archaeology of Hunter-Gatherers from the Emergence of Modern Humans
-Archaeometallurgy: Metallic Artefacts
-Aztec Archaeology: Codices and Ethnohistory
-Beyond Chiefdoms: Archaeologies of African political complexities
-British and European Prehistory: Neolithic to Iron Age
-Funerary Archaeology
-Interpreting Pottery
-Making and Meaning in Ancient Greek Art
-Making and Meaning in Ancient Roman Art
-Maya Art, Architecture and Archaeology
-Medieval Archaeology: Select Topics and Current Problems
-Prehistoric Stone Artefact Analysis
-Society and Culture in Ancient Egypt
-The Neolithic and Early Bronze Age of the Near East: The Emergence of Villages and Urban Societies
-Rock Art Studies: Theories, Methods and Management

Dissertation/report
All MA students undertake an independent research project which culminates in a dissertation of approximately 15,000 words.

Teaching and learning
The core module is seminar based, and the sessions are interactive, with an emphasis on student participation and critical discussion. The optional modules are delivered through seminars, lectures, practicals, laboratory sessions, tutorials, and site and museum visits, as appropriate for specific modules. Assessment is through essays, oral examination and the dissertation.

Careers

Some recent graduates of the programme have gone on to PhD studies while others have pursued an incredibly wide range of professional careers both within and beyond archaeology. Recent graduate career destinations include: excavator for a private archaeological contractor, education officer, and intern at a national museum. Several students each year normally continue on to PhD studies at UCL.

Top career destinations for this degree
-Doctoral Researcher, Graduate School of Human Development in Landscape
-Head of Corporate Legal, Fidelity
-Freelance Archaeologist, Murray Archaeological Services
-MPhil/PhD Archaeology, University College London (UCL)
-Humanities Lecturer, Cirencester College and studying PTLLS (Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector), Cirencester College

Employability
As the most general of the MA/MSc programmes, the experience and skills acquired depends on the optional modules selected, and how those skills are developed through assessed work, developing experise in the archaeology of specific regions, periods or themes, or specific field, museum and analytical skills. All students acquire a detailed understanding of specific theoretical debates and the critical skills to evaluate existing arguments and interpretations and to develop their own research, develop a range of research skills, and design and carry through original research. Taught from a comparative anthropological perspective, understanding cultural differences, in the past and present, is fundamental.

Why study this degree at UCL?

The UCL Institute of Archaeology is the largest and one of the most highly regarded centres for archaeology, archaeological science, cultural heritage and museum studies in Britain, highlighted by its top position in university assessments and National Student Survey results. It is one of the very few departments in the world undertaking research on a truly global scale. Its degrees offer an unrivalled variety of modules. The institute hosts events on many different aspects of archaeology and is linked to heritage organisations, museums and archaeological societies, providing an outstanding research environment for students.

It is truly international in outlook and membership, with students and staff from over 40 countries, and involvement in field research projects around the world.

UCL is located in central London, within walking distance of the British Museum and the British Library. UCL's own museums and collections constitute a resource of international importance for research.

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The Archaeology Graduate Diploma at UCL is fully integrated within the teaching programme of the Institute of Archaeology. The programme offers an education in all major aspects of archaeology, in a challenging yet supportive environment, under the supervision of teachers actively engaged in research at the forefront of the field.

Degree information

By the end of the programme, students will have developed an understanding of past societies within their cultural, socio-political, economic, historical and environmental contexts, as well as the current social and political context of archaeology, with particular reference to the management, interpretation and presentation of archaeological heritage. Depending on their choice of optional modules, students will also have gained knowledge and understanding of specific topics.

Students undertake modules to the value of 120 credits.

The programme consists of two core modules (30 credits) and optional modules from the wide range available within the department (90 credits).

Core modules:
-Current Issues in Archaeological Theory
-Interpreting Archaeological Data

Optional modules
Optional modules are chosen from the wide range of second and third-year undergraduate taught courses available within the institute.

Dissertation/report
Not applicable.

Teaching and learning
The programme is delivered through a combination of lectures, seminars, museum visits and laboratory classes. Nearly all modules, except the core modules Interpreting Archaeological Data which involves one unseen examination, are assessed by coursework. Any language module that students may choose will also be assessed by examinations.

Careers

The programme provides a solid foundation for students whose first degree is in a non-archaeology subject and who wish to pursue graduate studies (MA and higher) in archaeology and develop their own interests, which they will also pursue at graduate level. The diploma is also designed to provide an academic qualification in archaeology for students wishing to explore employment opportunities in the field.

Why study this degree at UCL?

The UCL Institute of Archaeology is the largest and one of the most highly regarded centres for archaeology, archaeological science, cultural heritage and museum studies in Britain, as evidenced by its leading position in university league tables and National Student Survey results.

Its outstanding archaeological library is complemented by the UCL Main Library, University of London Senate House and other specialist libraries.

UCL is located in central London, within walking distance of the British Museum and the British Library. Students benefit from London's many museums and galleries and other archaeological spaces, but in particular have easy access to UCL's own museums and collections, which form a resource of international importance for academic research.

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This MSc provides students with a foundation in the analysis of human remains, both in archaeological and modern forensic settings. With a solid grounding in skeletal and dental anatomy, students learn about morphological variation, development, methods for biological profiling, human disease and forensic approaches to trauma and taphonomy.

Degree information

Students will learn procedures for interpretation and analysis of human skeletal remains - considering both archaeological and modern forensic contexts. There is a unique opportunity to analyse recently excavated human remains, utilising methods and techniques learned during the programme. While the focus of this programme is primarily on modern humans, late Pleistocene hominids are also considered.

Students undertake modules to the value of 180 credits.

The programme consists of five core modules (75 credits), one optional module (15 credits) and a research dissertation (90 credits).

Core modules
-Dental Anthropology
-Forensic Anthropology
-Methodology and Issues in Bioarchaeology and Palaeoepidemiology
-Morphology and Palaeopathology of the Human Skeleton
-Variation and Evolution of the Human Skull

Optional modules
-Anthropological and Archaeological Genetics
-Archaeology of Early Modern Humans
-Forensic Archaeology
-Forensic Geoscience (by arrangement with the Jill Dando Centre for Forensic Sciences)
-Funerary Archaeology
-Human Evolution (by arrangement with the Department of Anthropology)
-Palaeoanthropology (by arrangement with the Department of Anthropology)
-Zooarchaeology in Practice
-Other Master's options available at the Institute of Archaeology.

Dissertation/report
All students undertake an independent research project which culminates in a dissertation of 15,000 words.

Teaching and learning
The programme is delivered through a combination of lectures, seminars and practical classes. This MSc has strong links with the Forensic Archaeological Science MSc which gives individual programmes an interesting mix of participants and provides many opportunities for discussion. Assessment is through essays, class tests, reports and the dissertation.

Careers

Some graduates of the programme go on to PhD studies, while others go on to work in a range of archaeological and non-archaeological organisations as osteoarchaeological specialists, the police, curators and political researchers.

Why study this degree at UCL?

The UCL Institute of Archaeology is the largest and most diverse archaeology department in the UK, offering students a range of opportunities.

This particular MSc is unique, offering a combination of bioarchaeological and forensic principles for the study of human remains unlike anything else available in the UK. Students further benefit from access to a large collection of skeletal material for study, including dental and palaeopathology reference collections. Access to sophisticated equipment and techniques (laser scanner, SEM, thin sectioning, CT) is also available.

Some lectures will take place at the Royal College of Surgeons and students have access to their teaching collections and museums, including the Wellcome Museum of Anatomy and Pathology.

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This MSc programme concentrates on science-based archaeology and is ideal for people who want to become post-excavation or artefact specialists in the museum or commercial sectors.

There are two pathways to choose from: Artefact, and Landscape and Environment. Each would be suitable for graduates in archaeology or science subjects, who want to start or further their careers in these exciting fields.

The programme would also be useful preparation for further academic research and the skills you'll gain, such as problem-solving and team work, will be attractive to any employer.

The MSc in Archaeology consists of 180 credits of study. You will take a taught programme of 120 credits, comprised of eight modules, each of 15 credits, divided evenly into four modules per semester. You will also be required to complete a 15,000-20,000 word research dissertation which is to be submitted at the end of the academic year. You will be able to tailor the degree programme to suit your interests and requirements as far as possible within the options available.

Why Department of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology?

Academic expertise

Archaeology, Classics and Eygyptology has 39 full-time academic staff, who are all actively engaged in research ranging from early prehistory through to late antiquity.

Here are some of our particularly strong areas:-

African archaeology
ancient languages
archaeology of the Mediterranean and the Near East
archaeological science
Egyptology
European prehistory
Greek and Roman history and culture.
Fieldwork is an important part of research in archaeology and we've projects based internationally, in Egypt, Greece, Bulgaria, Jordan, Turkey, Italy, Zambia and South Africa, as well as in the British Isles.

Taught masters programmes

We offer a unique breadth of taught masters degrees in Ancient History, Archaeology (MA or MSc), Human Evolution, Classics and Egyptology.

You can configure a wide choice of modules to suit your interests and requirements and there are opportunities to learn different approaches and techniques, as well as ancient languages such as Greek, Latin, Akkadian, Sumerian, Egyptian and Coptic.

All of our masters degrees provide intensive training to prepare you for doctoral research and employment.

Excellent resources

The Ancient World and Archaeology has been studied at Liverpool since the 1880s, so we've had plenty of time to build up an enviable library and a fantastic museum.

The Garstang Museum, which is in the ACE building, has outstanding archaeological collections, along with extensive laboratory facilities for conservation, lithics, geomagnetism, stable isotope, trace elements, finds processing and sample preparation.

We also have a GIS suite with facilities for archaeological drawing and offer 24-hour access for taught students to a dedicated Student Resource Centre, complete with PCs, personal lockers, desk space, wi-fi and a networked printer.

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The Principles of Conservation MA offers students an introduction to the context of heritage conservation, of how conservation works, and of the issues and constraints which affect conservation practice. The programme explores the principles, theory, ethics and practicalities relating to the care and conservation of a wide variety of objects and structures.

Degree information

Students gain an in-depth understanding of approaches to collections care, preventive conservation, risk assessment, conservation strategies, ethics, management and professionalism, and develop critically aware perspectives on professional practice and research processes.

Students undertake modules to the value of 180 credits.

The programme consists of four core modules (60 credits), optional modules (30 credits) and a research dissertation (90 credits).

Core modules - students are required to take the following:
-Issues in Conservation: Context of Conservation
-Issues in Conservation: Understanding Objects
-Conservation in Practice: Preventive Conservation
-Skills for Conservation Management

Optional modules - students choose to follow further optional modules up to the value of 30 credits from the following list of related options (the degree coordinator may seek to guide the option choices made by those intending to carry on for the MSc in Conservation for Archaeology and Museums):
-Approaches to Artefact Studies
-Archaeology and Ethnicity
-Archaeolmetallurgy 1: Mining and Extractive Technology
-Archaeometallurgy 2: Metallic Artefacts
-Archaeological Ceramics Analysis
-Archaeological Glass and Glazes
-Interpreting Pottery
-Materials structure and deterioration of craft materials

Dissertation/report
All students undertake an independent research project which culminates in a dissertation of 15,000 words.

Teaching and learning
The programme is delivered through a combination of seminars, lectures, small-group tutorials, workshops and practical projects. Some modules include visits to conservation workshops and museums, including the British Museum, National Trust and the Museum of London. Assessment is through coursework, essays, poster, portfolio, project reports and the dissertation.

Careers

The Institute of Archaeology has a long history of training in conservation, and many of its graduates are now employed in key posts around the world. Many students go on to take the Conservation for Archaeology and Museums MSc. Others pursue careers in preventive conservation and collections management in local and national museums, art galleries and heritage organisations (mainly in Europe, North America and Asia). Some students have also used this degree as a platform to become a PhD candidate at both UCL and elsewhere.

Top career destinations for this degree:
-Conservator/Preparator, The Natural History Museum
-Assistant Curator, Tower of London
-MLitt Art, Style and Design, Christie's Education
-Historic Property Steward, English Heritage

Employability
Knowledge and skills acquired during the programme include the understanding of the roles conservators play in the care and study of cultural heritage, and the ethical issues involved. This is complemented by a basic understanding of raw materials, manufacturing technologies, assessment of condition and the ways in which different values and meanings are assigned to cultural objects. The student will be able to perform visual examination techniques as well as assessments and monitoring of museum collections. They will also be proficient in various types of documentation, analysis of numerical data, report writing, and presentation of conservation issues through posters, social media, talks and essays.

Why study this degree at UCL?

The UCL Institute of Archaeology is the largest and most diverse department of archaeology in the UK, and provides a stimulating environment for postgraduate study. Its conservation programmes have an international reputation.

Students benefit from the institute's lively international involvement in archaeology and heritage, from its well-equipped facilities, and access to UCL's extensive science, art and archaeology collections.

The institute's conservation laboratories provide a modern and pleasant learning environment, while the Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories provide excellent facilities for the examination and analysis of a wide variety of archaeological materials.

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Forensic Archaeology involves the use of archaeological principles and techniques for the location, recovery, and interpretation of evidence for past events within the constraints of the criminal justice system. It utilises both field and laboratory skills in the investigation of serious crime, missing persons, human rights and mass disasters. These skills range from searching for and excavating clandestine graves to the international investigation of crimes against humanity.

The course provides invaluable background knowledge in archaeological and forensic sciences required for criminal and human identification cases, integrating archaeological, anthropological and investigative disciplines. The course is delivered by leading practitioners who will develop and enhance your employability.

Our forensic archaeology course is unique in that it provides you with the opportunity to work with specialist equipment independently and provides you with a wealth of practical exercises simulating forensic scenarios, such as locating graves and managing an airplane crash. The course is also supported by a crime scene house, analytical labs, with extensive osteological rooms, skeletal collections, survey, excavation and geophysical equipment, geographic information systems (GIS), spatial information and cartographic suite.

Core units:
Forensic Archaeology
Advanced Forensic Archaeology
Principles & Methods in Human Osteology
Professional Practice in Forensic Science
Research Project

Optional units (1 of):
Human Functional Anatomy
Marine Environment, Heritage & Spatial Planning
Principles & Methods in Zooarchaeology
Techniques of Archaeological Recovery & Recording

And 1 of:
Advanced Zooarchaeology
Crime Scene Management
Humans, Animals & Diet

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Palaeopathology is the study of past disease in human remains; it is a sub-discipline of bioarchaeology (study of human remains from archaeological sites). This lecture, seminar and laboratory based MSc equips students with the theoretical and practical skills knowledge of how to study and interpret data collected from human remains. The emphasis is on health and well-being using a multidisciplinary approach, linking biological evidence for disease with cultural data (the bioarchaeological approach). This course is unique in the world and it takes a holistic view of disease, as seen in a clinical contexts today, and prepares students for undertaking significant research projects in this subject, or working in contract archaeology, and many other fields. It is aimed at graduates mainly in archaeology and anthropology with or without past experience of knowledge in this field, and for those who aspire to continue into a PhD programme or work in contract archaeology. However, past students have come from a variety of subject backgrounds, and destination data illustrate a wide range of employments take these students.

Course Structure

Two taught modules in the Epiphany term (Research and Study Skills in Archaeological Science and Identification and Analysis of the Normal Human Skeleton), and two taught modules in Michaelmas term (Palaeopathology: Theory and Method; Themes in Palaeopathology), with the double module dissertation over Easter term and the summer (submitted early September).

Core Modules

-Research and Study Skills in Archaeological Science
-Identification and Analysis of the Normal Human Skeleton
-Palaeopathology: Theory and Method
-Themes in Palaeopathology
-Dissertation (double module)

Learning and Teaching

The programme is mainly delivered through a mixture of lectures, seminars and practical classes. Typically lectures provide key information on a particular area, and identify the main areas for discussion and debate in bioarchaeology. Seminars then provide opportunities for smaller groups of students to discuss and debate particular issues or areas, based on the knowledge that they have gained through their lectures and through independent study outside the programme’s formal contact hours. Finally, practical laboratory classes allow students to gain direct practical skills in the recording and interpretation of data from skeletal remains. The latter provide an important element of the programme in allowing independent and group work, as well as hands-on experience under laboratory conditions, essential for a potential future working environment.

The balance of these types of activities changes over the course of the programme, as students develop their knowledge and ability as independent learners, giving them the opportunity to engage in research, professional practice, and developing and demonstrating research skills in a particular area of the subject.

In Term 1 students typically attend 4 hours a week of lectures and 2.5 hours of laboratory sessions, in addition to seminars over the term. Outside timetabled contact hours, students are also expected to undertake their own independent study to prepare for their classes and broaden their subject knowledge. External speakers specializing in specific subject areas from “industry” and academia are brought in to engage the students on issues in research, but also in the profession.

In Term 2 the balance shifts from learning the basic skills required for recording and interpreting skeletal data (age at death, sex, normal variation), to further developing skills for palaeopathological data recording and their interpretation and understanding the limitations. In addition, the Themes module aims to develop in students a critical approach to the evaluation of multiple forms of evidence, beyond that for human remains, for the reconstruction of specific themes. It focuses on discussion and debate of different related issues. In Term 2 students typically attend 4 hours a week of lectures and 2.5 hours of laboratory sessions, in addition to seminars over the term. Again, external speakers specializing in specific subject areas from “industry” and academia are brought in to engage the students on issues in research, but also in the profession.

The move towards greater emphasis on independent learning and research continues in Term 3 and beyond, where the research skills acquired earlier in the programme are developed through the dissertation research project. Under the supervision of a member of academic staff with whom they will typically have three one-to-one supervisory meetings, students undertake a detailed study of a particular area, resulting in a significant piece of independent research. The dissertation is regarded as a preparation for further professional or academic work. In Term 3 students are given the opportunity to attend a Careers Session in the Department where past graduates of the course talk about their career trajectories since graduating.

Throughout the programme, all students have access to an “academic adviser”, or in the case of this MSc the two Directors (Professor Charlotte Roberts and Dr Rebecca Gowland), who provide them with academic support and guidance. Typically a student meets their adviser two to three times a year, in addition to which all members of teaching staff have weekly office hours when they are available to meet with students on a ‘drop-in’ basis. The department also has an exciting programme of weekly one hour research seminars which postgraduate students are strongly encouraged to attend. Additionally, the students who attend the MSc Palaeopathology course are provided with the opportunity to attend journal paper critique sessions each term, and human bioarchaeology seminars given by PhD students.

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